Frankie, G.W., & Hagen, K.S. 1986 . Ecology and biology of iceplant scales, Pulvinaria and Pulvinariella in California. Final Report. FHWA-CA-HM-02. Department of Transportation, Division of Highway Maintenance, State of California. Sacramento, California 44 + 3 pp.

Notes: The primary goal of this research project was to develop biological and ecological information for the management of two iceplant scale species on iceplant along California freeways. The Integrated Pest Management (IPM) framework was used as a context for this work. The two scales, Pulvinariella mesembryanthemi and Pulvinaria delottoi were introduced into California in the early 1970s, and the former assumed serious pest status by 1977. Both scale species continue to spread throughout California, but P. mesembrianthemi is moving at a much faster rated that P. delottoi. Three parasitic wasps (Metaphycus funicularis, M. stramineus and Encyrtus saliens, have been established on the scales using classic biological control techniques, and the evidence to date indicates that they are impacting significantly on the scale populations.